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Literature Review and Theoretical Framework
This qualitative study was guided by three basic adult education learning
theories: self-directed learning, transformative learners, and experiential learners.
Malcolm Knowles (1977), a leader in adult education, developed the paradigm of
andragogy. He asserted andragogy differs from pedagogy in that pedagogy is the
teaching of children, whereas andragogy is the facilitation of learning for adults,
who are self-directed learners.
McConnell (2013) commented that even though the theory of andragogy was
developed in the 1970s, it is still relevant for adults today. McConnell stated that
Dr. Phyllis J. Broughton is adults are responsible for their lives and are self-directed learners. As such, they take
retired Dean of Academic
and Student Affairs the initiative of identifying resources for learning and for implementing their own
from Martin Community strategies to learn in a manner best suited for them,
College, Williamston, North McConnell (2013) further stated adults want to “learn relevant information and
Carolina, and currently skills they can apply to current day-to-day activities and prefer life-centered, task-
a Teaching Assistant centered, and problem-centered activities” (p. 3). Adult learners are “motivated with
Professor of Adult personal goals for a better job, increased personal satisfaction, or improved self-
Education in the College
of Education, East Carolina esteem” (p. 4).
University, Greenville, Merriam and Caffarella (1991) noted “learning is a personal process” (p. 1).
North Carolina. Her They commented that Baby Boomers set the precedent for changing education
research interests include and methods of teaching and learning. According to Merriam and Caffarella, this
leadership development demographic of learners is “better educated, in better health, and economically better
and generational studies off” (p. 7) than previous generations of learners. These Baby Boomers have led the
in teaching and learning.
She is a member and way in improving and paving new ways for education for adults. They “support
current chapter president Knowles’ model of practice and the responsiveness to the individual, institutional,
(2022–2024) of Beta and societal needs” (p. 273).
Upsilon Chapter of Another feature of adult learning is explained by the transformative theory of
North Carolina State applying past experiences to new ways of thinking. Mezirow (Western Governors
Organization.
University, 2020) identified transformative learning theory as focusing on the way
broughtonp@ecu.edu learners “interpret and reinterpret their experiences for meaning and for learning”
(p. 2). Learners receive new information, evaluate past ideas and understanding, and
pbrought123@gmail.com shift viewpoints with new information through critical reflection. Transformative
learning involves two fundamental changes: (a) instrumental learning focusing on
task-oriented problem solving and evaluation of cause-and-effect relationships; and
(b) communicative learning focusing on how people communicate their feelings,
needs, and desires. Learning takes place when individuals reflect on new perspectives.
In addition to being transformative learners as they reflect on new perspectives,
older adults are often experiential learners. Ahmad et al. (2022) found that “older adult
learners prefer an experience-based learning approach in an active environment, so
they can share their life experiences, opinions, and expectations” (p. 7). Experience-
based learning cultivates students’ involvement, interest, and active participation.
Pavlou’s (2021) study also supported experience-based learning, which Gagne
saw as “stimulating recall of prior learning” (p. 3), noting that learning takes place
when learners see relevancy of knowledge and associate meaning related to past
experiences. Pavlou cited Gagne’s “providing feedback” as another example
of learning for older learners. All learners like to have timely feedback. Pavlou
recommended making “feedback personal and, most importantly, making it ongoing
and timely” (p. 3). He encouraged early identification of resources for support, such
as a writing center, to address gaps in learning.
In the same vein, McLeod (2017) identified Kolb’s experiential learning theory

54 The Delta Kappa Gamma Bulletin: International Journal for Professional Educators