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individual and social goals and means for accomplishing change;
collaboratively creating rules and laws, policies, and practices; and
changing personal or family practices to meet the needs of family
members or to promote the common good of others in society. (2008,
pp. 4–5)
The third step is to evaluate the personal context of the perennial or emerging
problem. This is so one can become more critically conscious of internal factors to
make necessary changes, utilize strengths, and work to become more empowered
(Duncan, 2018; Rehm, 2021). Individual barriers could include vague assumptions,
personal biases, doubts, fears, weaknesses, or gaps in knowledge and skills (Duncan,
2018; Rehm, 2021). Individual strengths could include skills, interests, guiding
values, persistence, special knowledge, and life experiences (Duncan, 2018; Rehm,
2021). One should be asking questions such as “Where am I in terms of reaching the
valued end? What does it mean for me? What are my taken for granted assumptions?
What am I doing that is getting in the way of reaching the valued end?” (Rehm,
2021, p. 191). This step engages critical self-reflection.
The fourth step “focuses on guiding individuals and families in analysis and
critique of social trends, cultural influences, economics, political systems, and other
external factors that affect their families” (Rehm, 2021, p. 191). Here is where
individuals and families can see how society affects them and what they can do
to have an impact on society. As one begins to understand others based on their
perspectives, as well as on research, one can begin to compare possible alternatives
and outcomes.
The fifth step is to analyze alternative ways to achieve the valued ends and
the possible consequences of each alternative (Laster, 2008; Rehm, 2021).
“Consequences concepts describe the results of holding a particular valued-end, or
of actions proposed and taken. Individuals examine both primary and secondary
consequences—how they are affected and how others will be affected now and in
the future” (Laster, 2008, p. 5). Laster detailed the following types of consequences:
• Consequences of technical actions for self and others, such as effects of
a low protein diet on the brain development of the fetus during the third
trimester of pregnancy and ultimately on the parents and society; effects of
television on the development of children and ultimately on cultural norms;
• Consequences of communicative actions for self and others, such as
probable effects of quitting a job without giving employer notice; effects of
clarifying values; effects of education; effects of collaboratively addressing
problems versus individually addressing problems.
• Consequences of reflective emancipatory actions on self and others, such
as probable effects of raising the consciousness of cultural norms regarding
domestic abuse; effects of laws on reducing child abuse; effects of uncovering
the root causes of alcoholism, codependency, and confronting alcoholism
among peers and families; effects of dominating and supportive relationships
on the quality of life and development of young children; and effects of
well-developed reasoning versus inadequate reasoning on relationships and
quality of life. (2008, p. 5)
Next, one would begin asking questions such as “What is one alternative to
change the situation, with what means, and with what consequences? . . . What is the
second alternative, with what means, and with what consequences?” (Rehm, 2021,
p. 192).

38 The Delta Kappa Gamma Bulletin: International Journal for Professional Educators