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continuum of related and overlapping systems from which individual speakers
creatively choose and apply context-appropriate elements from the range of material
known to them (see e.g., Ascenzi-Moreno, 2018; Childs, 2016; Garcia, 2009; Garcia
& Wei, 2014; Orellana & Garcia, 2014; Torff & Murphy, 2021). Today, elements of
translanguaging are being used in classrooms worldwide, not only in bilingual and
TESOL contexts but in general education settings as well (Cenoz, 2017; DeCosta
et al., 2017). Readers of a certain age will recall that, at least in the United States,
it was once the norm for both foreign and second-language teachers to strive to
stamp out “mistakes”—a practice that often made students feel stigmatized if they
used elements of languages other than the one being taught (Hendrickson, 1978;
Pratolo, 2019; Touchie, 1986). By contrast, translanguaging values and encourages
all language output in recognition of the fact that it takes a great deal of courage—
and therefore self-efficacy—to use a language one has not yet mastered, as well as of
the fact that previously learned languages provide an important bridge on the road
to learning new ones.
The notion of language as a continuum, in fact, is not merely theoretical. The
simplest example of the practical basis for this claim—and an example that can be
the basis for fun and useful classroom exercises—is the existence of cognates, i.e.,
words that sound the same or similar across languages (Lubliner & Grisham, 2017).
Cognates abound within language families—for example in Spanish, French, and
Italian, all of which derive from Latin. English, owing to its historical connections
to French and borrowings from Latin, shares some of these, such as serve (Spanish
servir), line (Spanish línea), and offer (Spanish ofrecer). Importantly, the meaning
has not always remained the same as each language has evolved, giving rise to
“false cognates,” which can also occur across language families through borrowing
or coincidence. By using a translanguaging perspective, however, teachers can lead
their students on value-neutral explorations of such similarities and differences.
In other words, rather than invoke fear by repeating the mantra, “Beware false
cognates!” as did one teacher whom the author otherwise remembers fondly, one
can contribute significantly to new language learning by designing lessons in which
students actively inquire into and compare the meanings of sound-alike words in the
languages that they know (Lubliner & Grisham, 2017).

Conclusion
Given the rise in the need for instruction of ELs and in light of scholarship on the
interaction among language and content-learning needs, many educators now accept
that ELs’ language growth is the responsibility of all teachers. Once this is accepted,
one needs to consider how such growth can be supported both holistically and in
a planned and coordinated manner. As this article argues, using the four language
domains—listening, speaking, reading, and writing—as guidelines to ensure broad-
based coverage is an important key. In addition, benchmarking through observation
and assessment using standardized tracking tools helps educators to work together
across schools so that they can tailor lesson plans to the needs of ELs in all classrooms
and provide a seamless transition as students advance across proficiency and grade
levels. Convening schoolwide committees with educators from different grade
levels and content areas to produce these tools and to plan these transitions can help
keep everyone working effectively for the education of all students. Finally, using
classroom strategies such as those detailed here under the four domains, along with
applying the best practice principles of respect, patience, and flexibility, can help

22 The Delta Kappa Gamma Bulletin: International Journal for Professional Educators